Indian Constitution

Non-justiciable but fundamental guidelines for state policy — inspired by Irish Constitution

11 duties of citizens added by 42nd Amendment (1976); non-justiciable but morally binding

India's Constitution has been amended 106 times; key amendments transformed rights and governance

The soul of the Constitution — declares India a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic

"Heart and Soul of the Constitution" — right to approach Supreme Court if Fundamental Rights are violated

Free and compulsory education for children 6–14 years; added by 86th Amendment (2002)

Equality before law, no discrimination, equal opportunity in public employment — Articles 14 to 18

Six freedoms including speech, assembly, movement, profession — the cornerstone of Indian democracy

Supreme Court can strike down laws violating the Constitution; PIL made courts accessible to all

Apex court of India; guardian of the Constitution; established 1950; final authority on all laws

House of the People; 543 elected members; represents citizens directly; most powerful house

Parliament can make laws, amend the Constitution, control the executive and conduct oversight

Council of States; 245 members; permanent house — never dissolved; represents states and UTs

Three types: National (Art 352), State (Art 356), Financial (Art 360) — when India faced crises

Constitutional head of state; elected by Electoral College; exercises powers on PM's advice

Real head of government; leads Cabinet; commands Lok Sabha majority; determines government policy

Independent constitutional body conducting elections; established 1950; largest democratic operation on Earth

Governor is constitutional head of state; CM leads state Cabinet; federalism in practice

India is quasi-federal — strong centre, Union/State/Concurrent lists, residuary powers with Centre